“Jesus said that the end of the world would happen during the lifetime of His contemporaries. Why didn’t this happen?” - explain what we were really talking about

Jesus Christ Quotes in Aramaic

Quotations from Jesus preserved in Aramaic and translated into Greek. Details here: the language of Jesus and the words of Jesus on the cross.

Content

• 1 Seven sayings 1.1 1. Father, forgive them; because they don't know what they are doing
• 1.2 2. Today you will be with me in heaven
• 1.3 3. Woman, behold, your son! Look, your mother!
• 1.4 4. My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?
• 1.5 5. Thirst
• 1.6 6. Done
• 1.7 7. Father, into your hands I commend my spirit.

Historicity[edit]

James Dunn considers the seven sayings to have weak roots in tradition and sees them as part of developments in various retellings of the last hours of Jesus' life. [37] Dunn, however, argues that the authenticity of Mark/Matthew's words is that the presentation of Jesus as "forsaken" would have been an embarrassment for the early church and therefore would not have been an invention. [37] Geza Vermes argues that the first statement from (Matthew and Mark) is a quotation from Psalm 22 and is therefore sometimes seen as a theological and literary device used by the authors. [38]According to Vermes, attempts to interpret this expression as a reassuring reference to Scripture indirectly indicate its authenticity. [39] Leslie Holden, on the other hand, argues that Luke may have deliberately excluded the Matthew/Mark saying from his Gospel because it did not fit the model of Jesus that he presented. [3] [7]

Notes[edit]

1. Jeffrey W. Bromiley, International Standard Encyclopedia of the Bible
   , Eerdmans Press 1995, ISBN 0-8028-3784-0 p. 426
2. Joseph F. Kelly, An Introduction to the New Testament for
   
   Catholic
   Liturgical Press , 2006 ISBN 978-0-8146-5216-9 pp. 153
3. ^ abcd Jesus: The Complete Guide
   by Leslie Houlden 2006 ISBN 0-8264-8011-X p. 627
4. ^ abcd Hamilton, Adam. 24 hours that changed the world
   . Abingdon Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-687-46555-2
5. Wilson, Ralph F. "The Seven Last Words of Christ from the Cross." < Http://www.jesuswalk.com/7-last-words/ >
6. Jesus of Nazareth
   W. McCrocklin 2006 ISBN 1-59781-863-1 p. 134
7. ^ ab Jesus in History, Thought and Culture: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1 by
   James Leslie Holden, 2003 ISBN 1-57607-856-6 p. 645
8. Seven Last Words from the Cross by
   Fleming Rutledge 2004 ISBN 0-8028-2786-1 pp. 8-10
9. ↑
   Richard Young (February 25, 2005).
   Echoes of Calvary: Reflections on the Seven Last Words of Christ by Franz Joseph Haydn, Volume 1. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 978-0742543843. Retrieved April 1, 2012. It is interesting to note that the Methodist Book of Worship
   adopted by the 1964 General Conference provides two services for Good Friday: a three-hour afternoon service and an evening Good Friday service that includes “Worship at the Cross” (Gospel, Extraction and Adoration Cross), but does not include the communion service, which would be the Methodist equivalent of the Mass of the Presanctified.
10. The Encyclop Americdia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge, Volume 13. Encyclopedia Americana. 1919. Retrieved April 1, 2012. The devotion of the "Three Hours", borrowed from Roman usage, with meditation on the "seven last words" from the Cross and held from 12 to 3, when our Lord hung on the Cross, is a Good Friday service which is being met with an increasing number of times. recognition among Anglicans.
11. Ehrman, Bart D. Jesus, Interrupted, HarperCollins, 2009. ISBN 0-06-117393-2
12. "Online Bible - New International Version". Biblehub.com
    . 2011. Retrieved February 8, 2022.
13. Jan Majernik, The Forecasters
    , Emmausroad Press: 2005 ISBN 1-931018-31-6, p. 190
14. ^ abcdefgh International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
    Geoffrey W. Bromiley, 1988 ISBN 0-8028-3785-9 pp. 426
15. ↑
    Vernon K. Robbins in
    Literary Studies in the Gospel of Luke by
    Richard P. Thompson (ed.) 1998 ISBN 0-86554-563-4 pp. 200–01
16. Mercer Bible Dictionary by
    Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard, 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 pp. 648
17. Reading Luke-Acts: The Dynamics of the Biblical Narrative
    by William S. Kurtz 1993 ISBN 0-664-25441-1 p. 201
18. Luke's Presentation of Jesus: Christology
    by: Robert F. O'Toole 2004 ISBN 88-7653-625-6 r. 215
19. Stephen L. Cox, Kendell H. Easley, 2007 Harmony of the Gospels
    0-8054-9444-8 pp. 234
20. ^ abcd A Companion to Blackwell Catholicism by
    James Buckley, Frederick Christian Bauerschmidt and Trent Pomplan, 2010 ISBN 1-4443-3732-7 p. 48
21. Conner, W.T. The Cross in the New Testament
    . Nashville: Broadman Press, 1954. ASIN B0007EIIPI p. 34
22. "Department Commentary". See Mark 15:34, https://biblehub.com/commentaries/pulpit/mark/15.htm.
23. Stagg, Frank. New Testament Theology
    . Broadman Press, 1962. ISBN 0-8054-1613-7
24. "Seven Words from the Cross (Reflection)". Ukrainian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church
    . February 28, 2011 Archived August 13, 2022
25. Hyssop. Wed Exodus 12:22: They sprinkled the blood of the Passover lamb over the doors of the Israelites' dwellings when they killed the firstborn of the Egyptians; Leviticus 14: Hyssop wrapped in yarn was used to sprinkle the blood and water of lepers; Leviticus 14: Hyssop wrapped in yarn is also used for the ceremonially unclean so that they can become clean again; Psalm 51:7: David in his confessional prayer cried out to God: “Cleanse me with hyssop, and I will be clean”; and Hebrews 9:19–20: After Moses had given the people the Ten Commandments, “He took the blood of calves and goats with water, red wool, and hyssop, and sprinkled both the scroll itself and all the people, saying, “This is the blood of the covenant, which God has established for you." Hamilton. , Adam (2009). 24 hours that changed the world. Nashville: Abingdon Press. ISBN 978-0-687-46555-2.
26. Nicoll, W.R., interpreter of the Greek Testement on John 19, accessed May 15, 2020
27. ↑
    Jerusalem Bible (1966): Psalm 22:15
28. https://bible.org/question/what-does-greek-word-tetelestai-mean
29. "John 19:30". Bible of Douay-Rheims. Therefore Jesus, having drunk the vinegar, said, It is ready. And, bowing his head, he gave up the ghost.
30. Milligan, George. (1997). Dictionary of the Greek Testament. Hendrickson. ISBN 1-56563-271-0. OCLC 909241038.
31. ^
    David Anderson-Berry,
    The Seven Sayings of Christ on the Cross
    , Glasgow: Pickering & Inglis Publishers, 1871
32. Arthur Pink, Seven Sayings of the Savior on the Cross
    , Baker Books 2005, ISBN 0-8010-6573-9
33. ↑
    Simon Peter Long,
    The Wounded Word: A Brief Meditation on the Seven Sayings of Christ on the Cross
    , Baker Books 1966
34. Timothy Radcliffe, 2005 Seven Last Words
    , ISBN 0-86012-397-9 page 11
35. A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature
    by David L. Jeffrey 1993 ISBN 0-8028-3634-8 p. 233
36. Robertson Word Pictures from the New Testament
    (Broadman-Holman, 1973), vol. 1. ISBN 0-8054-1307-3.
37. ^ab James G.D. Dunn, Jesus Remembered
    , Eerdmans, 2003, pp. 779–81.
    [ ISBN missing
    ]
38. Géza Vermes, Passion
    , Penguin 2005, p. 75. [
    ISBN missing
    ]
39. Vermes, Geza. The Real Gospel of Jesus
    .
    London, Penguin Books. 2004. [ ISBN missing
    ] [
    page needed
    ]
40. Neido, Jean-Guy (2005). Paths to the Public Square: Practical Theology in an Age of Pluralism. Münster: LIT Verlag Münster. item 159. ISBN. 9783825884239. Retrieved February 8, 2022.

Chapter 1. Jesus' parables and their understanding / Why did Jesus speak in parables?

Turning to the parables of Jesus, we must first note that they represent the most difficult layer of His direct speech to interpret. Even for His contemporaries they were mostly incomprehensible, which is confirmed by the disciples’ repeated attempts to get an explanation of this or that parable (Matt. 13:36; 15:15). This is also evidenced by the question that the disciples asked Jesus after He spoke the parable of the sower. In the Gospel of Matthew this question is expressed as follows:

And the disciples came and said to Him, “Why do you speak to them in parables?” He answered them: because it has been given to you to know the secrets of the Kingdom of Heaven, but it has not been given to them, for whoever has, more will be given to him and he will have an increase, and whoever does not have, even what he has will be taken away from him; Therefore I speak to them in parables, because seeing they do not see, and hearing they do not hear, and they do not understand. And the prophecy of Isaiah is fulfilled over them, which says: You will hear with your ears and not understand, and you will look with your eyes and not see, for the hearts of these people have become hardened and their ears are hard to hear, and they have closed their eyes, lest they see with their eyes and hear with their ears. , and they will not understand in their hearts, and let them not be converted, so that I may heal them (Matthew 13:10-15).

As Jesus' response to the disciples shows, He was aware of the incomprehensibility of His parables and yet spoke them; He explained the misunderstanding of the listeners with words from the book of the prophet Isaiah, which he transferred to His contemporaries. In Isaiah, these words sound in a certain context that must be taken into account: they are set into the story of his call to prophetic ministry. The story begins with a description of the vision that Isaiah received in the year of the death of King Uzziah. He saw the Lord sitting on a throne and surrounded by seraphim, exclaiming: Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts! the whole earth is full of His glory. From these exclamations, the tops of the gates shook and the house was filled with incense smoke. Isaiah exclaims in horror: Woe is me! I'm dead! For I am a man of unclean lips, and I live among a people also of unclean lips, and my eyes have seen the King, the Lord of hosts. One of the seraphim flies to the prophet, holding pincers with burning coal in his hand. He touches the coal to the prophet's lips and says: Behold, this has touched your mouth, and your iniquity is taken away from you, and your sin is cleansed. Next, the prophet hears the voice of the Lord saying: Whom shall I send? and who will go for Us? He replies: Here I am, send me. At this moment, the words that Jesus quoted in His answer to the disciples sound from the lips of God Himself: Go and tell this people: You will hear with your ears and will not understand, and with your eyes you will see and will not see. For the heart of this people is hardened, and their ears are hard of hearing, and they have closed their eyes, lest they see with their eyes, and hear with their ears, and understand with their heart, and turn, that I may heal them (Isa. 6:1-10).

Jesus thus draws a direct parallel between the situation in which Isaiah found himself when God sent him to preach to the people of Israel and His mission. He realizes that he is dealing with people who will have difficulty (βαρέως) to perceive what He tells them, because they have closed their eyes, that is, they have closed their own access to the Good News He brought. First of all, the quotation from Isaiah refers to that category of Jesus’ listeners who do not perceive His preaching: the spiritual leaders of the people of Israel - the high priests, scribes and Pharisees. But to a greater or lesser extent, the quote also applies to simple listeners - those who came to Jesus without evil intentions, without ulterior motives, without a deliberate desire to tempt, challenge or refute Him. Their spiritual condition does not allow them to fully perceive the truths that He wants to convey to them; that is why, to convey these truths to the people, He uses a special form of presentation, specially adapted for them.

What purpose does this form serve—to facilitate understanding or to hinder it? At first glance, it seems that Jesus, as a wise teacher, would have made efforts to make it easier for people to understand what He had to say. But the cause-and-effect relationship between hearing and perception is expressed differently in Matthew and in the other two weather forecasters. In Matthew, as we have seen, the words of Jesus are given in the following wording: Therefore I speak to them in parables, because when they see they see not... In Mark they sound somewhat different: To you it has been given to know the secrets of the Kingdom of God, and then to those outside everything happens in parables; so they look with their own eyes and do not see; They hear with their ears and do not understand, lest they convert, and their sins be forgiven (Mark 4:11-12). In the same edition, the words of Jesus are given in Luke (Luke 8:10).

In the Russian Synodal translation, the difference between the two editions - Matthew and the other two synoptics - is smoothed out. In the original text of the Gospels of Mark and Luke, instead of Matthew's διὰ τοῦτο... ὅτι (because... that) there is a preposition ἵνα (so that). This preposition gives the text a different meaning. The literal translation of the words of Jesus, according to Mark and Luke, sounds like this: but to those outside all things happen in parables, so that when they look, they look and do not see, and when they listen, they hear and do not understand. This is exactly how the text sounds in the Slavic translation of the Gospel of Mark: It has been given to you to know the secrets of the kingdom of God: but all things are external in parables. Let them see, and see not; and they hear, they hear, and do not understand; lest they turn, and their sins be forgiven them.

Scholars have debated the meaning of the preposition ἵνα (to) in this text throughout the twentieth century. 1See: Turner N. Grammatical Insights into the New Testament. P. 47–50.. Some saw it as an unsuccessful translation from Aramaic, distorting the original meaning2Manson TW The Teaching of Jesus. P. 75–80. Others have disputed this view. 3Black M. An Aramaic Approach to the Gospels and Acts. P. 153–158.. It was proposed to consider ἵνα as an indication not of the goal, but of the consequences4 Peisker CH Konsekutives hina in Markus 4:12. P. 126–127; Chilton BD A Galilean Rabbi and His Bible. P. 93–94.. A number of scholars believe that, trying to explain the phenomenon of the incomprehensibility of parables, Mark created his “hardening theory” and put it into the mouth of Jesus, who in fact did not say anything like that, since he considered His parables understandable5Carlston CE The Parables of the Triple Tradition. P. 97–109..

Attempts to soften the meaning of Jesus' words as conveyed in Mark and Luke were primarily due to the fear that, if translated literally, they might be taken in the spirit of Calvin's doctrine of predestination. According to this teaching, some people are obviously predestined to salvation, others to destruction. 6Calvin J. Instruction in the Christian Life. 3, 21. T. 2. pp. 375–387. Those who are not predestined for salvation cannot understand the meaning of the parables.

Meanwhile, a literal reading of the passage in question from the Gospel of Mark does not necessarily lead to a Calvinistic interpretation. This reading fully corresponds to the words of Jesus from the Gospel of John: I came into this world for judgment, so that those who do not see could see, and those who see would become blind (John 9:39). Here the preposition ἵνα is translated as so that: with the help of this preposition, the cause-and-effect relationship between the coming of Jesus into the world and the result of His preaching is denoted. And it turns out that the result is not only the insight of those who had not seen before, but also the blinding of those who considered themselves to have seen. However, this result is by no means a consequence of the predestination of some to salvation and others to destruction. On the contrary, it stems from the fact that some respond to the sermon, while others do not; some come to Jesus with faith, seeking spiritual insight; others, like the Pharisees and scribes, stop their ears and close their eyes.

The above words are part of the dialogue between Jesus and the Jews, which took place after He restored sight to the man born blind. The miracle itself, described by John, clearly illustrates the double effect that Jesus has on those around him: those who come to Him in faith receive insight from Him; those who come with mistrust, doubt or unbelief not only do not receive their sight, but, on the contrary, reveal their blindness even more. To the question of the Jews, “Are we also blind?” Jesus answers: If you were blind, you would have no sin; but as you say what you see, the sin remains on you (John 9:40–41). Here, the twice used term ἁμαρτία, translated as “sin”, but in classical Greek meaning an error, a miss, or missing the target, acquires key significance. It is the result of sin that people are unable to see what should be obvious to them and to understand the true meaning of the words addressed to them.

Sin leads to spiritual blindness and deafness. Physical blindness and deafness require a certain approach from those whose task is to educate those suffering from one of these ailments, congenital or acquired. When teaching the blind and deaf, special methods are used that are developed for these categories of people. In the same way, when working with the spiritually blind and deaf, a certain way of presenting didactic material is required, a specific form in which this material should be clothed. A parable became such a form for Jesus.

However, if in the case of teaching the blind and deaf, special methods are developed to facilitate their learning of the material, then in the case of the parables of Jesus the situation was different. Returning to the meaning of His words as given in Mark and Luke, we can state that He did not speak parables in order to make it easier for people to understand His teaching. It seems that the opposite task was set - to complicate the process of understanding, to make it more labor-intensive.

One recently proposed explanation for this paradoxical aspect of Jesus' preaching, which has repeatedly attracted the attention of scholars, comes from the assumption that Jesus spoke parables for his own safety:

Jesus speaks parables so that He will not be understood... If too many people understand too well, the freedom of movement, and even the life of the prophet, will be threatened. Jesus knew His Kingdom message was revolutionary. For a variety of reasons, the Romans, Herod, adherents of Jewish piety, and Jewish leaders (both official and unofficial) will not be happy with her. For this reason, He must speak in parables, so that the eyes may look and not see. This is the only safe way... For the time being, censorship will allow such parables to pass. Then the time will come for more open speeches. Wright N. T. Jesus and the Victory of God. P. 216..

It is unlikely that such an explanation should be taken seriously, which ignores the obvious fact that the parables were by no means some kind of intermediate, temporary form in which Jesus presented His teaching: He spoke them from the very first days of His ministry in Galilee until the last ones before his arrest. the days He spent in Jerusalem. Teachings that were not presented in the form of a parable were taught by Jesus in parallel with the parables, and not only at the final stage of His ministry: this is evidenced by the Sermon on the Mount, attributed by Matthew to the beginning of His ministry, and by the numerous public conversations of Jesus with the Jews in the Gospel of John. If Jesus had been afraid to directly address not only His sympathetic listeners, but also His opponents, a significant part of His addresses to the Jews included in the Gospels would simply have been absent from them.

Another explanation of the reasons why Jesus spoke in parables is based on the fact that the very image of Jesus, His miracles and His preaching had a dual effect on people: in some they strengthened faith, in others, on the contrary, they caused rejection and hatred. As the researchers emphasize, many of Jesus’ listeners “perfectly understand the call of the parables, but are not ready to follow it”8 Klauck HJ Allegorie und Allegorese in synoptischen Gleichnistexten. S. 251.; “even the enemies of Christ at the cognitive level9T. that is, at the level of consciousness. perceived his parables” 10 Blomberg K. Interpretation of parables. pp. 42–43.. As an example, they refer to the reaction of the Pharisees, who, after Jesus spoke the parable about the evil vinedressers, tried to seize Him, but were afraid of the people, because they realized that he had spoken the parable about them (Mark 12:12). What is evident here is not misunderstanding, but conscious resistance.

Simple but convincing answers to the question of whether Jesus spoke in parables are given by John Chrysostom. In his opinion, Jesus spoke in parables “for greater emphasis”11John Chrysostom. Conversations on the Gospel of John. 59, 2 (PG 59, 324). Rus. transl.: p. 388. used “secret speech, because he was talking about the sublime12 of Him. 3 (PG 59, 326). Rus. trans.: P. 390.. Another explanation, which belongs to him: “At first He did not speak to them in parables, but simply and clearly. But since they began to be reluctant to listen to Him, He finally began to speak to them in parables.”13 Him. Interpretation of Saint Matthew the Evangelist. 45, 1 (PG 57, 472). Rus. transl.: P. 477..

Let us note that when the disciples heard Jesus' first parable, they did not ask a question about its meaning. They asked: Why do you speak to them in parables? (Matt. 13:10). Only after they received an answer to this question, and with it an explanation of the parable, did they dare to ask a question concerning another parable: Explain to us the parable of the tares in the field (Matthew 13:36). At first, they were interested not so much in the meaning of the parable as in the very method of presenting didactic material that the Teacher used. Only secondarily do they ask about the meaning of the parable. In most cases, the evangelists do not note any interest at all among the disciples in the meaning of the parables: it may even seem that, having received an explanation of the first two, they were not at all interested in the content of the subsequent ones. In any case, even if they received explanations from the Teacher, they did not consider it necessary to convey them to posterity, and most of the parables remained in the Gospels without explanation.

All discussions surrounding the interpretation of parables in the 19th and 20th centuries concerned exclusively the question of their meaning, content, meaning. However, the preoccupation with meaning that characterizes modern man was apparently less characteristic of Jesus’ immediate audience—the Galilean peasants who gathered around Him in large numbers to listen to His words. They were probably less interested in the teachings of Jesus than in His personality, the miracles He performed, and the very tone of His speech, which was so different from the tone in which the scribes and Pharisees addressed them (Matt. 7:29). As the researcher notes, for many who were going to listen to Jesus, this was the first meeting with the One about whom the whole neighborhood was talking. As they listened to Him, they wondered not so much “what does He mean?” but rather “what is happening?”14Wright SI Jesus the Storyteller. P. 95–96..

Even in our time, when discussing the speeches of a popular TV presenter (we apologize to the pious reader for a comparison that may seem inappropriate), people often pay more attention to how he looks, what he wears, or the tone in which he speaks, than to the meaning of his words. The image of a person, his image, his behavior on stage or in front of a television camera are no less important for listeners and spectators than the content of his speech. This is especially true when people are seeing a celebrity for the first time, whether in real life or on television. The psychological effect of meeting a very bright person sometimes leads to the fact that the meaning of his words is not perceived at all: his image and personality completely crowd out what he says from the consciousness of the listeners.

Similar experiences can be observed in some people who pick up the Gospel for the first time. Having never come into contact with Jesus and His message before, there is much that they do not understand when they first read it. The Gospel immerses them in a world of images that are far from their everyday reality; the material is presented in a language to which they are not accustomed: on the one hand, very simple, on the other, quite difficult to understand. And yet they continue to read, making their way through the thorns of images and concepts unfamiliar to them. In the sayings of Jesus, in His parables, they feel the presence of the One who spoke them. It is this feeling of the living presence of Christ that turns out to be the main impression for many from the first reading of the Gospel. A person begins to ask questions about the meaning of certain episodes, sayings and parables only later - during the second or third reading.

The parable genre is one of the intermediate links between prose and poetry. Parables are presented, as a rule, in prose form, but their figurative structure, language, laconic form of presentation, sayings and sayings with which they are often accompanied (whoever has ears to hear, let him hear; many are called, but few are chosen; the last will be first, and first to last) - all this brings parables closer to poetry, gives them a poetic coloring. Accordingly, the listener’s perception of parables is close to how people perceive poetry. In a poem, the reader, as a rule, does not look for morality, conclusions or instructions: images, sound design, rhythm, word play, and other techniques of poetic skill are much more important.

Jesus often addressed people with direct instructions that had an imperative form (an example is the already mentioned Sermon on the Mount). But in parables He resorted to a different form of presentation, which left much more space for imagination, fantasy, and independent creative comprehension. In the parables, Jesus appears before us not only as a teacher of morality, but also as a poet, putting his thoughts into flexible and multifunctional verbal forms, suggesting multi-level perception - not so much through the intellect, but through the heart.

Let us not forget that if for us parables are, first of all, written texts that we read, study, analyze, then for the direct listeners of Jesus the situation was different: they heard His living speech with all the dynamics of oral, interpersonal dialogue characteristic of it15Donahue JR The Gospel in Parable. P. 3.. When transferred to paper, those additional shades that the listeners caught thanks to the Narrator’s intonation, His gestures, raising and lowering of his voice, facial expression and eyes inevitably disappeared16 Cf.: Lischer R. Reading the Parables. P. 7–8.. Some additional overtones were lost during translation from Aramaic into Greek 17 Jeremias J. The Parables of Jesus. P. 25–26., and then with each new translation of the text from Greek into other languages.

And yet, despite the fact that, in a certain sense, every parable of Jesus that we read today in our native language is a reconstruction of what He once said to His immediate listeners, through the written text of these parables His living voice reaches us . And the written text resurrects before us the image of the One who not only brought people the news of the Kingdom of God, but also had the ability to clothe this message in vivid, memorable images. 18 Cf.: Wenham D. The Parables of Jesus. P. 13..

The parable is a carrier of important theological truths, but they are expressed not through clear definitions (definitions), but through metaphor:

Jesus was a metaphorical theologian. He expressed the meaning of what He wanted to say through metaphor, simile, parable and dramatic action rather than through logic and resonance... Metaphor conveys meaning in ways that rational arguments cannot... Metaphor, however, is not an illustration of an idea: it is a mode of theological discourse. A metaphor does more than clarify meaning: it creates meaning. A parable is an extended metaphor and as such it is not simply a system for conveying ideas: it is a house in which the reader or listener is invited to dwell.19Bailey KE Jesus through Middle Eastern Eyes. P. 279–280. See also: Bailey KE Finding the Lost. P. 15–22..

A parable has some similarities to a fable or fairy tale. Like a fable, it is built on the principle of metaphor and in some cases ends with a direct indication of how this metaphor relates to reality. Like a fairy tale, a parable does not pretend to be real and can contain all sorts of fantastic details and end earlier than the listeners would like. After listening to a fairy tale or fable, children sometimes ask: “What happened next?” This question seems inappropriate and comical to adults, since they know the laws of the genre.

The parable genre also has its own laws. One of them is that not all details of the parable are of equal importance and not every detail requires interpretation. John Chrysostom also said that “not everything in parables should be paid attention to”20John Chrysostom. Interpretation of Saint Matthew the Evangelist. 64, 3 (PG 57, 613). Rus. trans.: P. 656.. A modern researcher writes: “Parable and reality are not equivalent. Parables are not direct descriptions of reality and do not purport to describe life as it should be. They only partially reflect the reality they are intended to reveal... We will never understand parables unless we focus on how the analogy functions.”21Snodgrass K. Stories with Intent. P. 517..

In other words, in every parable there are details that have a functional meaning, but there may also be elements that do not serve any metaphorical function. Questions regarding the meaning of this or that detail that does not carry a semantic load may turn out to be as inappropriate as children’s questions regarding the possible continuation of a fairy tale that has already ended.

In our opinion, the key to answering the question of why Jesus chose the form of parables as the main way of presenting didactic material should be sought in comparing His parables with His miracles. The relationship between Jesus' words and actions is clear. Moreover, the main part of His actions described by the evangelists are miracles. We can say that the miracle was the primary form in which Jesus expressed Himself through action as the Son of God sent into the world by the Father. In the same way, the parable was the main form in which the Son of God expressed Himself through the word, conveying to people the Good News that He was sent to proclaim.

Jesus' miracles were not passively accepted by people. Very often, when performing healing, Jesus not only demanded faith from those being healed, but also made faith a condition for performing a miracle. Often healing, being His action, had to be accompanied by specific actions on the part of the person on whom it was performed. Jesus directly called those being healed to them: Stretch out your hand (Matthew 12:13; Mark 3:5; Luke 6:10); Get up, take up your bed, and go to your house (Matthew 9:6; Mark 2:11; Luke 5:24). On the other hand, His miracles caused opposition from those for whom all His activities caused irritation and rejection. The miracle became a challenge for both: some received healing and salvation through active assistance, others received eternal destruction through active opposition.

Every parable became exactly the same challenge for those who heard it. A parable is a “realistic fiction”22Kloppenborg JS The Tenants in the Vineyard. P. 51 (“realistic fiction”).; “earthly history” with “heavenly significance”23Jones PR The Teaching of the Parables. P. 131.; “a genre designed to surprise, to make you think, to shake things up”24Levine AJ Short Stories by Jesus. P. 3–4.. Like many other texts of Holy Scripture, parables simultaneously “inspire and challenge, comfort and condemn: they are a two-edged sword” 25 Lambrecht J. Out of the Treasure. P. 195..

While narrative in form, the parable is allegorical in content. 26Bailey ML Guidelines for Interpreting Jesus' Parables. P. 30.. The parable aimed to transform listeners from passive receptors of the Good News into active co-workers of the One who brings this news to them. It demanded their own intellectual and spiritual efforts from those to whom it was addressed, their own work to understand its meaning, it “provoked the active work of thought”27Dodd CH The Parables of the Kingdom. P. 16.. Everyone had to perceive the parable in their own way, and this, apparently, was the main purpose of Jesus' utterance of parables.

His use of the parable genre as the main carrier of the message that He wanted to tell people is associated with the capabilities of this genre, which distinguishes it from straightforward statements. In the Old Testament, God spoke to the people in the language of commands, expressed in a harsh imperative form and accompanied by threats of punishment for failure to comply. In the New Testament, God speaks to people in a different language: He does not impose anything on anyone, respecting the freedom of choice of each individual person. A modern Orthodox theologian writes:

The parable genre has the ability to reach a wider range of listeners, from simple fishermen to sophisticated thinkers in philosophy. Everyone can find in a parable something consonant with his interests, therefore a parable has several levels of understanding: the same words can convey several levels of truth... In parables... the truth is not imposed... Parables are the only way to reach that deeply personal abyss of human consciousness that does not accept neither force nor coercion... The living, never-ending dialogue of each parable with human consciousness allows us to move from the motionless image of communication to the dynamics of living relationships through a characteristic feature of the parable genre: unfixedness, avoiding straightforward statics28Nikolai (Sakharov), Hierom. A brief overview of the methodology of modern interpretation of the parables of Christ in the Synoptic Gospels. pp. 199, 207–209..

Each parable requires an individual reading: its meaning is revealed to a specific person from his own life situation, from the context in which he lives. Moreover, the meaning of the parable can be revealed differently with each new reading. This applies to one person and to entire generations. At different stages of his spiritual development, a person can understand the meaning of the same parable differently. And entire groups of people can perceive them differently depending on their cultural context, the challenges of their era, and many other factors influencing perception.

It is precisely because of this that parables have a special property: they never become outdated. Having been originally addressed to specific people who lived in a certain historical period, the parables of Jesus remain relevant for all subsequent generations. Each new era invents its own approaches to parables, its own methods of interpretation. But a universal principle always and everywhere operates: trying to understand the meaning of a parable, the reader or listener, voluntarily or involuntarily, projects its plot onto his own life situation, just as King David had to do after the prophet Nathan told him the parable of the lamb.

Jesus quoted words from the book of the prophet Isaiah to those who listen to His parables. The Evangelist John also refers to Isaiah when speaking about the reaction of Jesus’ opponents to His miracles:

He performed so many miracles before them, and they did not believe in Him, so that the word of Isaiah the prophet might be fulfilled: Lord! who believed what they heard from us? and to whom was the arm of the Lord revealed? Therefore, they could not believe, because, as Isaiah also said, this people have blinded their eyes and hardened their hearts, so that they will not see with their eyes, and will not understand with their hearts, and will not be converted, so that I will heal them. Isaiah said this when he saw His glory and spoke about Him (John 12:37-41).

This text provides further evidence of the close connection not only between Jesus' miracles and parables, but also between people's reactions to these miracles and parables.

In content, form, figurative structure and action, parables are akin to prophecies. Many prophecies were predictions about future events; parables too. The prophets used a rich language of images, symbols and metaphors; parables use similar language. The prophecies were designed for long-term, centuries-long “functioning”: their main function was that they came true, and they could come true repeatedly, in different situations in different ways. The Gospels are filled with references to prophecies that were fulfilled in the life and ministry of Jesus. Parables are also intended to live a long time, over the centuries, and to come true, that is, to prove their relevance and significance at different stages of human development, as well as in the destinies of individual people.

Every time one or another reader or listener recognized himself in one of the heroes of the parable, his life situation in the situation described in the parable, his problem regarding relationships with God or with people in the problem indicated in the parable, this parable came true. Whenever this or that people, this or that generation of people committed actions that led to the same consequences as those described in a particular parable, this parable came true.

In the fact that Jesus spoke in parables, His disciples saw the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies. The presentation of the teaching from the boat - the first collection of parables of Jesus, included in the Gospel of Matthew - ends with the words of the evangelist: Jesus spoke all these things to the people in parables, and did not speak to them without a parable, so that what was spoken through the prophet might be fulfilled, saying: I will open my mouth in parables; I will utter the hidden things (κεκρυμμένα) from the creation of the world (Matthew 13:34–35). These words are a paraphrase of a verse from the 77th Psalm, in the Russian Synodal translation from Hebrew it sounds like this: I will open my mouth in a parable and utter fortune-telling from ancient times (Ps. 77:2). In the Septuagint, the first half of the verse literally coincides with Matthew’s version, the second is close to him in meaning: “I will open my mouth in parables, I will utter divinations (προβλήματα - here “riddles”, literally: “tasks”, “questions”) from the beginning.”

Each parable was both a riddle and a challenge for the disciples: a riddle that had to be solved; problem that needed to be solved. Such parables remain to this day for everyone who tries to understand their meaning. The result of this process largely depends on that hermeneutic key29T. e. the key to interpretation. Hermeneutics is the art of interpretation. — Note. ed., which is used to explain the parables. Many such keys have been invented in the history of the interpretation of parables. And yet, for each parable you have to look for your own key, your own approach. We will talk about this in more detail below, in the section devoted to the interpretation of parables.

Parables in the Old Testament

Table of contents

Parables of Jesus: classification