Chapter II. The first flowering of monasticism in Kievan Rus

Monasteries and monasticism in Rus' in the X-XII centuries.

Monasticism (Greek)

monachos - lonely) - a form of service to the Lord, embodying the ascetic ideals of Christianity, which historically arose in the end. 3 – beginning 4th centuries in Egypt and Syria.

In the East, Christianity was understood primarily as a way of life that corresponds to the ethical standards of the Gospel (“life in Christ”) - fasting, prayer, moral piety. The ideal of Christian life was monasticism, the goal of which was salvation after death and hope for eternal life, which the Lord grants to the true righteous.

From a Christian point of view, the real world is filled with evil that comes from the devil; the concentration of evil in a person is his body (flesh), subject to various temptations. The main principle of monasticism is departure from worldly life, renunciation of temptations (wealth, power, carnal pleasures) in the name of serving the Lord.

The monk took vows of non-covetousness (renunciation of property), chastity (celibacy), obedience (absolute obedience to the rules and monastic authority, complete renunciation of one’s own will). The monks focused their attention on prayer and fulfilling the obediences that were entrusted to them in the monasteries. The robes of the monks are black - a symbol of renunciation of the world and a symbol of sorrow.

The first monks left people for deserted places and lived in prayer and silence. Over time, they were joined by other Christians who wanted to devote their lives to serving the Lord. This is how monastic communities - monasteries - began to emerge.

The monks of one monastery began to be called brethren (“brothers in Christ”). A person who came to the monastery had to pass a test - to be a simple novice for several years. During this time, he had to be convinced of the correctness of his chosen path.

Acceptance into monasticism occurs after the rite of tonsure, or tonsure, which consists of the priest cutting the hair on the novice’s head in a cross shape as a sign of his dedication to Christ, turning him into a servant of God. To commemorate the final renunciation of the previous life and world, after tonsure the initiate is given a new name. The ritual ends with the vesting of the new monk in monastic robes.

There are three degrees of Orthodox monasticism: the ryasophorus, the less-schemnik and the great-schemnik. Accepting a small or great schema means fulfilling more severe vows. From monasticism the highest leadership of the Orthodox Church is formed - the episcopate.

In Rus', monasticism appears at the end. 10 – start 11th centuries In the Russian way, the monks were also called monks, as well as monks - after their black clothes. One of the first monks known to us was Anthony of Pechersk (11th century), founder of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery.

The monks served as an example of life according to the commandments of Christ, and supported the authority of the Orthodox faith and the church among the laity. The most revered monks were recognized as elders - spiritual mentors. They most often did not have any worldly power. The heyday of Russian eldership in the 14th–15th centuries. was associated with the activities of Sergius of Radonezh and his students, as well as Nil Sorsky and the “non-money-grubbers.”

In the history of Russian monasticism there were many great ascetics: Theodosius of Pechersk, Anthony of Rome, Cyril of Turov, Varlaam of Khutyn, Sergius of Radonezh, Cyril of Belozersky, Dimitry of Prilutsky, Pafnuty of Borovsky, Savva Storozhevsky, Nil Sorsky, Joseph of Volotsky, Artemy Troitsky, Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky and etc. These and many other monks are canonized.

Many monks were the authors of religious and philosophical works (for example, Theodosius of Pechersk, Kirill of Turov, Kliment Smolyatich, Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod, Nil Sorsky, Joseph of Volotsky, Zinovy ​​of Otensky, Demetrius of Rostov, etc.). The monastic environment was the concentration of the spiritual and intellectual life of Russian society; it was here that the most important areas of church-political polemics between the “Josephites” and the “non-possessors”, the “Latinists” and the “Grecophiles” developed. In the monastic environment, the theories of the “Third Rome”, “New Jerusalem”, etc. were formulated.

The monks took an active part in the political life of the Russian state and were advisers to the Russian grand dukes and tsars. Often, before making any decisions, Russian sovereigns came to monasteries for advice and blessings. There was a custom according to which Russian sovereigns accepted monasticism (schema) before their death. S.P.

Monastery ( Greek)

monasterion - hermit's cell, secluded dwelling) - 1) a form of organization of a community of monks living according to a certain charter and observing religious vows; 2) a complex of liturgical, residential, utility and other buildings, usually enclosed by a wall.

There were three types of monasteries in the Orthodox Church. Vacation monasteries are monasteries established by hermit monks. In their own monasteries, monks held common services, but each had their own property. In communal monasteries, monks renounced personal property altogether, fulfilled the duties assigned to them (“obedience”), and strictly observed the requirements of the monastic charter. The most strict was the Studite Charter, adopted for the first time in the Byzantine Studite monastery in the end. 8 – beginning 9th centuries

Monasteries are divided into male and female. In the 14th–15th centuries. There were also mixed monasteries in Rus'. At the head of the monastery was an abbot elected by the monks, who was then approved by the bishop or metropolitan. According to custom, a monastery was established when at least 12 monks gathered in one place - the same as the 12 apostles.

In Rus', monasteries arose at the end. 10 – start 11th centuries In Kievan Rus, the most famous and authoritative was the male cenobitic Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, founded in 1051 by Anthony of Pechersk. One of the first abbots, Theodosius of Pechersk, introduced the Studite Rule in the monastery. In the Moscow state from mid. 14th century The leading role was played by the Trinity (Trinity-Sergius) Monastery, founded by Sergius of Radonezh. A communal charter was adopted at the Trinity Monastery, which had been forgotten by that time in Rus'. During the monastic reform carried out by Metropolitan Alexy in the 14th century, cenobitic monasteries were founded throughout Rus'. In con. 15 – beginning 16th centuries Monasteries associated with the activities of Nil Sorsky and the “Trans-Volga Elders” became widespread. During the same period, the cenobitic Joseph-Volokolamsk Assumption Monastery, founded by Joseph Volotsky, became important. In the 50s 17th century The New Rusalimsky Resurrection Monastery, founded by Patriarch Nikon, acquired special influence.

Monasteries were important centers of spiritual enlightenment. Here chronicles were written, church books were copied and translated into Slavic. Schools and icon-painting workshops were created at the monasteries. The brethren of the monasteries carried out extensive charitable activities, creating almshouses for the poor at the monasteries.

The monasteries were centers of economic activity and owned rich lands and salt mines. Serfs were assigned to the monasteries. An important source of income was contributions for “soul remembrance” - land and other donations after the death of the donors. The Council of the Hundred Heads in 1551 established the inviolability of church property. One of the richest in the 17th century. there was the Solovetsky Monastery. The monks of the monastery grew fruits that were outlandish at that time on the northern Solovetsky Islands - melons, watermelons, grapes.

Monasteries performed an important military function. Built like real fortresses, Russian monasteries more than once became strongholds in the fight against invaders. For example, the Trinity-Sergius Monastery in 1608–1610. held a siege of Polish troops for a year and a half. S.P.

Monks appear in the Russian Church immediately after the baptism of Rus'. The chronicler mentions them when speaking about the meals hosted by St. Prince Vladimir for the clergy. However, the first reliably mentioned Russian monasteries are the St. George and Irininsky monasteries in Kiev, built by Yaroslav the Wise around 1051. Tradition also names among the most ancient monasteries of the Russian land the Boris and Gleb Monastery in Torzhok, founded around 1030 . Rev. Ephraim, brother of George Ugrin, who was killed along with St. Prince Boris, and Rev. Moses Ugrin, Kiev-Pechersk miracle worker.

The first monasteries in Russia were predominantly princely monasteries. Of the 68 monasteries known in Rus' in the pre-Mongol period, two thirds were built by princes and other private individuals. The princes founded monasteries in honor of their souls, equipped them with temples, made rich contributions, and from the beginning of the 12th century. were also allocated lands. However, they considered these monasteries their property and disposed of them at their own discretion. Often Russian princes, shortly before their death, took monastic vows here according to Byzantine custom; strict dependence on the ktitor could not be conducive to monastic asceticism. The truly history of Russian monasticism begins only with the emergence of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, built not with the money of princes and boyars, but with the labors and real ascetic feat of the monks themselves.

The monastery began with the cave of Hilarion, who became metropolitan in 1051. Probably, soon a Russian monk, a native of Lyubech, Anthony, who came from Athos, settled here, who did not find real asceticism in any of the Kiev monasteries. This cave, which was subsequently expanded and turned into a whole complex called the “Far” or “Feodosiev” caves, gave rise to the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. Soon, those seeking monastic achievement began to flock here, to the cave, to Anthony. Among them were Rev. Moses Ugrin, Rev. Varlaam and Rev. Ephraim, who were previously courtiers of Prince Izyaslav. Subsequently, Varlaam became the first abbot of the Pechersk Monastery, since Anthony, in his humility, not only refused to be the abbot of the monastery, but did not even accept holy orders. Ephraim was later elevated to the Pereyaslav See. Among the students of Rev. Anthony, the Venerable Venerable, who by that time already had the priestly rank, also appears . Nikon . The main continuer of the initiative was Rev. Anthony became Theodosius, who came to the monastery from Kursk. The establishment of the tradition of communal monasticism in Rus' is associated with his name.

Theodosius replaced Varlaam in the hegumen service, who was transferred to the Kiev Demetrius Monastery founded by Prince Izyaslav, where he became hegumen. Under Theodosius, in the Far Theodosian and Near Anthony caves, hermits imitating Anthony continued their feat. Most of the monks were already on the surface at this time. Here Theodosius created the first communal monastery in Russia, the model for which was the famous Studite monastery in Constantinople. The Studite Rule was borrowed, which came into use everywhere in the Russian Church and continued to operate in our country until the end of the 14th century. The Rule was an expression of monastic maximalism and sharply contrasted with the order that reigned in the clergy monasteries. He prescribed the complete renunciation of personal property by monks and the communion of property. The studio charter also obliged all monks of the monastery to perform physical labor, regardless of their position.

However, despite this, the Pechersky Monastery became perhaps the first monastery that began to accept land donations. This is how the foundations of the tradition of church land ownership were laid in Rus', which in the XII-XIII centuries. is already fully formed. Monasteries and episcopal sees become large patrimonies. One of the most generous patrons of the Pechersk Lavra was Prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich, who at first was very hostile to the initiative of the Venerable. Anthony, who tonsured his courtiers Ephraim and Varlaam without the consent of the prince. Izyaslav donated a hill located above the caves to the monastery. An above-ground monastery and the Great Lavra Church - the Assumption Cathedral - were built here. Consecrated in 1089, after the death of St. Theodosius (died in 1074), he became a role model in Rus' for a long time. The temple was built and decorated by Greek architects and icon painters. The first Russian architects and artists also studied with these masters. From the beginning of the 12th century. The name of the Venerable has come down to us . Alypius of Pechersk, who is traditionally revered as the first Russian icon painter. The name of Rev. is also known . Gregory, also an icon master. The name of Venerable Monastery is also associated with the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery . Agapit, the first Russian doctor. In the monastery in the 1070s. chronicle writing began. By the end of the 11th century. here the Kiev-Pechersk chronicle had already taken shape, which served as the basis for the famous “Tale of Bygone Years”, written by another Pechersk tonsure - Rev. Nestor the Chronicler. It was completed in the 1110s.

The Kiev Pechersky Monastery became the largest center of spiritual education and Christian culture. From here other Russian monasteries took their abbots. Among the Pechersk tonsures one can recall the names of Saints Stephen of Vladimir-Volyn, Nikita and Nifont of Novgorod, Simon of Vladimir-Suzdal. The latter, together with Polycarp of Pechersk, authored the final edition of the “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon” - a collection of the lives of the saints of the Kiev-Pechersk, compiled according to the type of ancient eastern fatherland. The authority of the monastery and its influence on the life of Kievan Rus was enormous. When Svyatoslav of Chernigov expelled his brother Izyaslav from Kyiv and took the grand-ducal throne, Abbot Theodosius ordered that Izyaslav continue to be remembered as sovereign, and not the usurper Svyatoslav.

The Kiev Pechersk Lavra was, of course, the leading center of monastic life in Rus' in the Pre-Mongol period. And even after surviving the defeat of Rus' by Batu’s hordes, the monastery managed to preserve much of the legacy of the saint. Anthony and Theodosius: until the 15th century he gave saints to the Russian Church. The veneration of the Council of Saints of the Kiev-Pechersk began with the glorification of St. Theodosius in 1108. In total, the Lavra gave the Russian Church over a hundred saints. The reverend himself Anthony founded the Boldinsky-Eletsky Assumption Monastery in Chernigov, excavating caves there following the example of those in Kiev. A similar monastery arose in the 11th century. near Vladimir Volynsky - Zimnensky Svyatogorsky Uspensky . in the Zimny ​​Monastery on the way from Constantinople to Kiev.

In Kiev itself, several more cave complexes are known; these are small natural caves in loess rocks. The monks expanded and deepened them, which was not difficult to do, since loess is pliable and soft. In addition to the Kiev-Pechersk monastery, a prominent monastery in Kyiv was the Zverinetsky Michael-Arkhangelsk monastery. On its territory, archaeologists discovered the burials of monks, completely similar to those of Kiev-Pechersk; a huge number of bone remains of Kiev residents were found, who probably tried to hide here from the Mongol pogrom, but were killed by smoke when Batu’s soldiers lit fires at the entrance to the caves, or became a victim of the collapse of part of the caves. The monastic feat in Kievan Rus quickly spread. Among the surviving monasteries of the pre-Mongol period, one can name, in addition to those already mentioned, such largest ones as the Kiev Mikhailovsky Vydubitsky (founded around 1070), Murom Spassky (late 11th century), Novgorod Antoniev (1117), Yuryev (1119). ) and Khutynsky St. Varlaam (1192) monasteries, Polotsk Spaso-Evfrosinevsky Monastery, founded around 1125 by St. Princess Euphrosyne of Polotsk, Spaso-Mirozhsky Monastery in Pskov (c. 1188). Near Vladimir on the Klyazma, the Nativity of the Virgin Bogolyubov Monastery, founded by St. Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky (1160s). The monastery with the same name in Vladimir itself, built by Vsevolod the Big Nest in the 1190s, has also been reopened. and once served as the tomb of St. Alexander Nevsky.

The Mongol invasion interrupted the natural course of monastic life: many monasteries were destroyed along with their cities, many suffered from pogrom and devastation, not all monasteries of the 11th - 13th centuries. were subsequently restored. The revival of monasticism began only in the 2nd half - late. XIV century as a result of the activities of St. Alexy Moskovsky

etc.
Sergius of Radonezh,
which coincided with the beginning of the national revival of Russia, overcoming the Horde yoke.
Over the previous century (2nd half of the 13th century - 1st half of the 14th century) there was very little information about monasteries, but the significance of monasticism in spiritual, moral and social life was preserved in its entirety. This is evidenced, in particular, by the fact that in the 80s. XIII century When compiling the Russian edition of the Helmsman's Book
, the set of articles that supplemented the texts of the traditional composition included the Studio Charter and other articles devoted to monasticism, including communal monasticism.
There is no direct information about the type of monasteries of this time and their “rank,” but in practice, apparently, the principles of singular residence prevailed (see Separate monastery),
or they were supplemented by features of community life. Most of them, as in the previous period, were urban (or located in close proximity to cities) in location and patronal, predominantly princely or boyar, in the type of foundation and material support. Monasteries intended to be princely or boyar family burial vaults, a place of residence in old age, had more prerequisites for strengthening singular residence; the possibility of entering them was, presumably, limited and conditioned by the size of the contribution.

Popular historical channel 11 ECU

Today our interlocutor is Pavel Ivanovich Gaidenko , Doctor of Historical Sciences, author of a number of monographs and articles on spiritual and church life in Ancient Russia.

P. Gaidenko

We are talking about monasticism. An incredible phenomenon in its combination of all kinds of legends, rumors, speculation, admiration and indignation. We will discuss not modern life in monasteries, but the monastery and monk of Ancient Rus'.

— Pavel Ivanovich, 11 Equus recently wrote about Rogneda , who, according to legend, was the first nun on Russian soil. It’s probably difficult to establish exactly who was the first, but tell us what the first Russian monasteries were like? Where did people go from the world in the first times after the baptism of Rus'?

— Thank you for the opportunity to share some of the observations that I accumulated while studying topics that interested me in the history of the ancient Russian church organization. Indeed, it is impossible to establish who was the first Russian monk or the first Russian nun. However, the question you asked is somewhat more complicated than it might seem at first glance. Since my interests are closely connected with the history of the Russian church of the pre-Mongol period, I will speak only about this period.

Firstly, accepting monasticism does not always imply a complete break with the world. The vast majority of the first ancient Russian monasteries were closely connected with the city, as well as with episcopal, boyar and princely castles. Secondly, monasticism existed from revenues from ktitors (owners of the monastery) and donations from the free population of cities. Thirdly, monasticism in the first century of Christianity in Rus' (after official baptism, whenever it took place, in 986, 988 or 989) cannot be reduced to monasteries. Some of the Chernets lived at the temples, such as Rev. Euphrosyne of Polotsk. Finally, judging by sources, there were many traveling monks in Rus'. Actually, Anthony himself, the founder of the Pechersk Monastery, wandered for a long time. Varlaam Khutynsky took monastic vows from a traveling monk priest. Canonical sources from the pre-Mongol period report on monks living outside the walls of monasteries. In addition, I think it is important to note that some of the zealots of monastic piety generally left the borders of Ancient Rus'. For example, Russian monks lived on Mount Athos.

Athos

As for the first Russian monasteries, their structure differed significantly from how monasteries were built in the 16th century. and later. Most of them did not have walls or they were such that robbing monks by local thieves was quite common. Very often, monasteries are not a community, but only a place of solitary residence for an Inca or his associates. This is exactly how the story of the monastery of Anthony the Roman and Varallam of Khutyn begins. This is how the life of the Pechersk Monastery begins. Often monasteries began with caves. This was explained not only by the influence of Palestinian monasticism, but also by the circumstances of the time and the capabilities of the monk. The cave was "cheaper". Let us remember that a significant part of the cities of this period were buildings reminiscent of dugouts. At the same time, monasteries could also be understood as cathedral churches (“Münster” - cathedral). In any case, the life of monasteries and monks differed significantly from the way modern monks live in Russia.

— Tell us, who established order in the monastery? Did anyone even check him, for example, to see if he was correct in his religion, and whether he had fallen into heresy under the special views of the abbot?

— Today we present the internal life of the monastery on the basis of the standard charter of the Russian Orthodox Church and the instructions of the liturgical charter, the Typikon. However, in the pre-Mongol period, much was different. The monastic charter was determined by the founder of the monastery or the ktitor. It was not always recorded and perceived as a tradition. However, under Rev. Theodosius of Pechersk attempted to introduce a cenobitic charter in the Pechersk monastery. Obviously, the monks did not like this idea. After the death of Theodosius, although the charter was preserved, it was practically not observed in full. This charter was glorified, considered as a model, its norms served as a kind of “standard” for ideal monastic self-organization, and at the same time, the statutory requirements were not fully fulfilled. ... This is a specific situation. As for maintaining order in the monastery, it is obvious that different practices were present in different monasteries.

In general, the highest power belonged to the abbot of the monastery and the ktitor. They could force people they disliked to leave the walls of the monastery. They also made the decision to forgive the guilty. In some cases, this issue was left to the discretion of the monastery brethren. The later practice of the Yuriev Monastery in Novgorod allowed that the abbot of the monastery could be either elected or expelled by the townspeople. The Old Russian princely statutes of the Church assumed that the bishops and the metropolitan had the highest authority over the affairs of the monastery. However, most likely this is a late addition. In pre-Mongol Rus', most monasteries remained uncontrolled by the bishop's authority. The bishop's trial of Abraham of Smolensk, a holy monk, was of an extraordinary nature, arose from complaints from the Smolensk abbots and was caused by the circumstances of the preaching of Abraham, who was suspected of heresy. The Nikon Chronicle reports something similar about a certain heretic monk Andrian. However, these two events appear to have been exceptions. The power of bishops over monasteries and churches is a reality of later times. However, as for intra-monastic courts, they were present in a regulated form in the life of monasteries in the 15th-17th centuries.

— And the community itself, the relationship between the monks. Did the secular authorities delve into what conditions were in the monasteries? Was the death of the monks investigated or was everything left to the abbot?

— It seems that the secular authorities least of all delved into the internal life of the monasteries. As a rule, princes, boyars and warriors were concerned about the arrangement of life and the splendor of their monasteries. However, the degree of reverence of ktitors for monasticism depended on the internal structure of the monastery and the sincerity of its inhabitants. The power of the abbot largely depended on the support of the ktitor and could be limited by the brethren. In any case, the history of the Pechersk Monastery and the monastery of Anthony the Roman demonstrate that the power of the abbot was regularly limited by the inhabitants of the monastery. As for the murders... Interesting. But the whole difficulty is that the Patericon gives examples of how princes killed monks. This is how the hands of Prince Rostislav, brother of Vladimir Monomakh, were stained. And despite all the obviousness of what was happening, naturally, no one investigated.

— People from different social strata came to the monastery. Was it really true that both a crippled beggar and a boyar’s son were accepted into the same monastery? How did their relationship develop further? Was it really possible to overcome centuries-old class differences within the monastery?

— If we talk about the social composition of the monastery of pre-Mongol Rus', then the inhabitants of the monastery are representatives of the social elite. Among them there are no people from the lower classes. This was largely due to the fact that deep immersion in the foundations of Christian life was characteristic, first of all, of the free population and representatives of the nobility. Secondly, the monasteries lived on contributions from the inhabitants. In addition, church rules in Rus' did not reject the possibility of charging fees, including for tonsure. However, in the eyes of the population, monasticism led to a significant loss by monks of the benefits of their previous social status. As for the internal hierarchy, it was largely determined by the participation of the monk in the management of the monastery and the material resources of this or that monk. Impoverishment also had its costs.

— It is clear that each monastery is different, but if you try to imagine a typical monk, a typical monastery, say, of the 12th century in Rus'. Who was he? How did he live? what I did during the day.

— Thanks for the question. It is complex... Are there “typical” people in principle? Yes and no. Let me start with the fact that the monasteries were different. Some of them lived in substantial prosperity. Some were created “with tears and prayers.” The rhythm of the community was built in accordance with the charter. There is no doubt that the main work that the monk carried out was prayer and attending divine services. However, if the monk was rich, then his work was not much different from the worries of a modern pensioner who has his own home and accumulated property: cares at his own discretion in the garden, pleasant chores around the house, reading books, conversations with neighbors, visiting a temple. If funds allowed, one could order separate food in the refectory, receive pleasant guests and treat oneself at a rich table; in the end, one could hire or pay for the temporary services of poorer monks, make donations, and build one’s own temple. In case of poverty, the monk bore difficult obediences, attended the common refectory, ate what was given, endured ridicule from his wealthier brothers... But here it is necessary to consider each situation separately. Everything had an impact: the degree of isolation or openness of the monastery, the economic state of the community, the personal qualities of the abbot and members of the brethren... Everything matters in such a situation.

The previous experience of the monk is no less important. There were, for example, monks who were capable of reading books and had libraries. True, in this case one should not exaggerate the volume of such book collections and the attraction of monks to intellectual work. Knowing that the monk prince Nikolai Svyatosha had a library, researchers do not know its fate after the death of the reverend father. One can only guess that, most likely, the books were either sold or lost. Some monks, in their free hours, indulged in eating food and idle conversations... But it is obvious that in the eyes of the princely people and villagers, the monks were assessed as nothing more than slackers and lazy people. In this regard, the Monk Theodosius also received reproaches against him. So, one day, returning from the prince, he was forced to endure the ridicule of the charioteer, who was supposed to deliver the monk to the monastery. True, the person who accused the saint did not know who was in front of him and expressed a general judgment. But it is also noteworthy that upon learning that it was the Monk Theodosius and having received a reward for his work, the charioteer, who reproached the abbot he did not recognize, did not apologize for his words. It is better to read about the humility of monks than to experience it yourself.

— About 10 years ago I asked one monk how he lived after leaving the world. He replied with a smile that he did not feel that he was not living in the world. Because the monastic brethren also form a certain society with its own laws and rules, and the regular flow of pilgrims, in principle, prevents a break with life outside the gates of the monastery. Still, as history says? Is a monastery a place for serious spiritual life?

— A serious spiritual life does not mean that it is perfect. A monastery is a place where a person comes who wants changes... I would say that this is a deeply psychological problem, which is not always realized by monks. I hope that someday the field of historical psychology in Russia will touch on these topics. The monastery was not ideal because the people who came to it were not ideal. In addition, these are closed communities of women or men, with difficult internal relationships inherent in them. In addition, monasteries are communities, often represented by people from the druzhina environment.

Here there was familiarity, rudeness, ridicule, male talkativeness, constant experiences of one’s own or someone else’s sexuality, respect for rank and simultaneous complete disregard for the difficulties of others, cruelty and amazing care for each other... The Kiev-Pechersk Patericon paints a rather unsightly picture of inner life. Holiness and the desire for it coexisted with hypocrisy, vices and undisguised impudence of behavior. A monastery is a community not of the spiritually perfect, but of those who dream of perfection, strive for it and try to find a path to this, often convincing themselves and others that this was the only right step... I would recommend that readers watch the wonderful work of B. A. Romanov . For my part, I want to say that I am very grateful to the organizers of this project for the opportunity to speak out.

— Thank you very much, Pavel Ivanovich. See you again!

History of monasticism in the first millennium

A monk (from the Greek μόνος - alone, lonely) is a person who has dedicated himself to God through taking vows. Literally, monasticism means “solitary, solitary living.”

First century

The holy fathers consider St. the prophet and Forerunner of the Lord John, the height of his feat and holiness the Lord Himself testified with the words: Amen, I say unto you, there shall not rise among those born of women of pain of John the Baptist... (Matthew 11:11). From his early adolescence he devoted himself to serving God and remained in the deserts until the day of his appearance to Israel (Luke 1:80).

After the apostles, who imitated the Lord Himself and the perfect fasting labors of His Baptist, as far as this was possible in the middle of the world, that is, among the incessant travels with preaching in cities and villages, one can indicate in the same century several more names belonging to glorious ascetics and ascetics. Yes, St. First Martyr Thekla abandoned her fiancé and, having suffered torment for Christ, “desired to see Paul, her father and teacher,” wanted to stay with him, sharing the labors of the gospel. But he told her: “No one comes to battle with his bride.” Then the saint, “having received the blessing from the Apostle, went to Seleucia, and settled in an empty place on a certain mountain near Seleucia, and there lived in fasting, prayer, and contemplation of God.” In the same way, Zinaida and Philonida , relatives of the same Apostle Paul, which, as can be seen from St. Scriptures (1 Cor. 7, 7-8, 26, 32-34, 40) and Holy. Traditions, everywhere he always taught and attracted everyone to a celibate life and he himself was a virgin - “having left his acquisitions and renounced the whole world... in a certain den he led his life.” At the end of the first century, St. began to labor as a nun. Venerable Martyr Evdokia . Her life is very valuable in this regard. Here we see that in this period there were already well-maintained nunneries and monasteries, although still relatively small and rare.

Second century

St. Paraskeva

During this period one can already count many holy monks and nuns. Monasticism is expanding, capturing people of every rank and title with its grace-filled wave, and foretells its greatest flourishing in the near future. Here's the reverend. Astion , a young monk, whose wonderful life of St. The Church offers us on the seventh day

month of July; here is no less wonderful Ven. Evgenia ; St. Narcissus , Bishop of Jerusalem, who left the episcopal see and retired forever into the desert to acquire the highest purity and dispassion; St. Paraskeva, St. Fronton and others.

Third century

St. Anthony the Great

Omitting the details of the lives of Saints Nikon, Galaktion and Epistima , Anastasia the Roman and others, let us move on to the generally recognized founders of desert living and cenobitic monasticism.

250 - A young Egyptian named Paul, familiar with the treasures of Greek and Roman education, retires to the terrible Thebaid desert at the age of twenty-two; having reached the age of 113, he died in it.

270 - Beginning of the exploits of St. Anthony the Great . At the age of 18, he retired from the world, having distributed all his property to the poor, which he inherited after the death of his rich parents, having previously sought advice on this from the holy elder.

Fourth century

From this time the whole glorious history of monasticism begins. It becomes a huge, immense force that has influence on the whole world. Subsequently, in an era of general decline of morals, it was diminished in its exploits and virtues; however, it also raised the laity from the depths of their fall and, through their suffering and confession, attracted the mercy of God to the Church. The devil, knowing what great benefits monasticism brings in the general economy of the church, often (it would be better to say constantly, if it comes to individuals) instigated great persecutions against him.

305 - St. Anthony the Great begins to become an elder and accept zealots of piety.

311 - During the severe persecution of Maximin, Anthony comes to Alexandria in order to share the sufferings of the cross with others. He strengthens some for heroic deeds, and intercedes for others before the judges. He spends about a year in these exploits.

St. Pachomius the Great

315 - St. Pachomius the Great , the famous founder of cenobitic monasticism, retires to the desert this year, having been released from military service (demobilized) after the war. He was about twenty years old.

326 - St. Athanasius the Great is appointed Archbishop of Alexandria and fights the Arians for 48 years. None of the archpastors of the 4th century had as much influence on the church councils of that time as he did.

335 - Anthony, in a letter, intercedes with Emperor Constantine on behalf of Athanasius the Great, expelled by the Arians. Writes accusatory messages to prominent Arian spiritual and civil leaders. He himself runs away from these heretics, as from poisonous snakes and the forerunners of the Antichrist.

355 - Anthony comes to Alexandria again and amazes even the pagans with his miracles and the beauty of life.

358 - St. Basil the Great , having received an excellent education, after long periods abroad

St. Basil the Great

travels (in total he put 14 years on them), is done by a lawyer. The following year he leaves the world, receives baptism, the degree of reader and goes to study the monastic life of the hermits of Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine and Egypt. Soon he himself founded several monasteries. His activity for the Church is so glorious and immense that it cannot be described in two or three lines.

372 - This year the Rev. dies. Ephraim the Syrian , whom his compatriots nicknamed the “Prophet of Syria.” Here are several reviews of great and glorious people of those times about this greatest ascetic and teacher of the Universal Church. “Ephraim, deacon of Edessa,” writes Blessed. Jerome - achieved such fame that in some churches his works are read publicly after St. Scriptures." “I will glorify that Ephraim,” says St. Gregory of Nyssa - the light of whose life and teachings shone for the whole world; for he is known to almost the entire sunflower and is unknown only to those who do not know the great luminary of the Church - Basil [the Great]....” St. Ephraim left behind many works of an accusatory, moral, dogmatic and hymnal nature; besides this, he interpreted the entire Bible (testimony of St. Gregory). Being a poet, he generally wrote up to three hundred thousand poems. Who is able to praise his many miracles, prophecies, revelations, visions!..

347 - Around this year, a new luminary of the Universal Church is born - St. John Chrysostom . It is in vain to try to give here even a condensed overview of his life - it will require a lot of time and labor. It is enough to cite a few facts from his church, social and personal activities. Without eldership

St. John Chrysostom

Asceticism and holiness are impossible <…>. And St. John Chrysostom began his spiritual life by “spent four years among the hermits on the mountain, under the guidance of an elder, and the other two years alone in a wild cave.” Cruel exploits upset his health, and he returned to his homeland, Antioch, for his recovery.

381 - Chrysostom is appointed deacon. During the five years of his diaconate he writes several more books.

386 - Chrysostom is ordained presbyter. During his 12 years of priesthood, he preached the word of God to the Antiochians at least once a week, mostly twice, and sometimes every day. In addition to preaching, he was also in charge of guardianship: after several years of priesthood, Chrysostom counted up to 3,000 widows and virgins in the Antioch church, whom she nourished daily, not counting those imprisoned, wanderers, and the sick, who were all also under the care of the community. Chrysostom distributed all his inheritance left after his father to the poor.

398 - St. John was consecrated Archbishop of Constantinople. Now he is busy with many things: he constantly preaches, improves the life of the clergy, recruits the best mentors for the school in Constantinople, builds and maintains several hospitals and two hospice houses, sends missionary monks outside the fatherland to convert infidels to Orthodoxy, denounces heretics and finally endures the cruellest a persecution which, in the words of one holy father, a historian of the Church, “achieved the merits of martyrdom.”

Fifth century

420 - Blessed Theodoret . He was a monk from birth, according to a vow given by his hitherto barren mother. Having become a bishop, he brought much benefit to the local and Ecumenical Church. Using church income, Theodoret built two large bridges and covered galleries in the city, restored public baths, laid water pipelines in waterless areas, protected the city from floods with canals, and summoned doctors, artists and artisans from different countries. About himself personally, in a letter to Pope Leo, he said: “For so many years, while ruling the bishopric, I did not acquire for myself a house, a field, a half-bed, or a coffin itself, but, having fallen in love with voluntary poverty, and what I received from my parents, after their death, he immediately distributed everything, as everyone living in the east knows.” He also did a lot for the Universal Church - he was “an interpreter of Scripture, a historian and a dogmatic polemicist.”

431 - St. dies. Paulinus, Bishop of Nolan . Being of a noble and very rich family, having received his education under the guidance of the famous Ausonius, having made a brilliant career for himself (at the age of 20, senator, then consul, then governor of Campania), this talented pagan, under the influence of his young but pious wife, St. Ambrose of Milan and others, at the age of 25, renounces honors, gives away his estates, abandons the world, accepts St. baptism and retires for a while to Spain, to the Pyrenees Mountains, for a hermit life. Afterwards he becomes the bishop of Nola and, being a great non-covetous man, constantly takes care of strangers and the poor (he builds hospice houses for them, puts on shoes, clothes them). When, after the invasion of the Goths, Paulinus had nothing left - for he had given away the church vessels to ransom the captives - and it was necessary to ransom the son of a poor widow, the saint himself sold himself into slavery to the Vandal king. St. Paulinus was an excellent poet; His compositions (hymns), distinguished by high and tender poetry, are also important theologically.

St. Simeon the Stylite

459 - On Wednesday, September 2 of this year, St. dies. Simeon the Stylite . Blessed Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus, a contemporary and witness of his deeds, in his “History of the God-Lovers” (chapter 26) says about him: “Although I can testify to his deeds by almost everyone, I am afraid to begin the story, lest they seem fabulous to posterity and unreliable because they exceed human nature.”

484 - St. Savva the Consecrated lays the foundation of his famous monastery not far from St. city ​​of Jerusalem. The Charter, or Typicon of Divine Services, established by him for his Lavra, has been accepted by our Orthodox Church even to this day.

Sixth century

527-565 - During the reign of St. Under Justinian the Tsar, monasticism increased even more . There are now up to 67 monasteries in Constantinople alone. New monasteries are also being founded in the provinces. A refuge (μετανοιαν, house of repentance) was set up for fallen women who wanted to reform. It was a convent where 500 unfortunates found shelter.

Rev. Maxim the Confessor

Seventh century

656 - Rev. Maximus the Confessor suffers great torment and persecution from heretics. His long-suffering life was famous for his kind teaching (he left many theological works).

Eighth century

730 - The new greatest luminary of the Church rises - St. John of Damascus .

Venerable John of Damascus

He was a theologian, apologist, interpreter of Scripture, orator, poet and historian. Throughout his hundred-year life (he died at the age of 104), he fought against the enemies of the Church and was engaged in scientific and literary works. He was humble like no other, and a glorious miracle worker. Around this year he began his first written speeches against the iconoclasts.

766 - Iconoclasm plunges the Church into the furnace of temptation, and many then acquire victorious crowns. Emperor Constantine Copronymus, an iconoclast, knowing that the whole strength of Orthodoxy lies in monasticism, “in August of this year, he gathers crowds of monks and nuns to ridicule and forces them to dance publicly on the lists.” Then he executes Peter the Stylite and many others; Some of the monasteries are turned into barracks, military warehouses and even stables, and some of them are abandoned. “Monks everywhere are forced to marry or dress in secular clothes, and those who resist have their eyes gouged out or are placed next to public women to be ridiculed by the crowd in the Constantinople circus.” “Sacred vessels are taken to the treasury, and church books, as well as holy relics, are burned.” But the malice of the devil and all of hell, acting through heretics, could not break the spiritual power of monasticism and diminish its authority. Fifty thousand monks who moved from Greece to Calabria founded up to two hundred monasteries in the latter, governed by the charter of St. Basil the Great. And in Greece itself, the triumph of monasticism, purified by martyrdom, came in the next century.

Ninth century

815 - Renewal of iconoclasm (under Leo the Armenian) and the beginning of a new confession.

Rev. Theodore the Studite

It is enough to mention only the names of St. Michael, Bishop of Sinada (former ambassador of Emperor Nicephorus to Harun al-Rashid), Venerable. Theophylact of Nicomedia , Ven. Nikita of Midice and the most glorious among the fathers , St. Theodora Studite .

842 - “The Triumph of Orthodoxy” , which took place this year in the first week of Great Lent, is still celebrated to this day, being also the triumph of monasticism, which, one might say, bore on its shoulders the entire burden of iconoclastic persecution. Holy Council (VII Ecumenical), chaired by St. Methodius, anathematized the heretics and confirmed the veneration of icons. At Matins on this day the canon of St. Theophan the Inscribed (later Metropolitan of Nicaea), in which the triumph of the Church is vividly depicted.

The further, the more and more monasticism expanded and became more glorious. Under the Macedonian imperial dynasty, according to historians, “it would have been impossible to count the monks.” “In Constantinople and its suburbs,” says the best expert on this period of Byzantine history, Schlemberger (and because the non-Orthodox says, the testimony is doubly valuable), “there were hundreds of monasteries; every church, even every chapel, had its own monastery; in some quarters, their buildings and all sorts of charitable institutions associated with them stretched one after another over an immense space. There was no emperor, prince, provincial archon, rich senator or merchant or noble woman who would not have founded or enriched, during his life or on his deathbed, some monastery, either to gain the mercy of God or to atone for grave guilt " Almost every wealthy person dreamed of his own monastery, and the poor, even peasants, built them together. The attraction in the cells became universal: representatives of both sexes, of all ranks and positions, from the highest to the lowest, competed in the desire to leave the world. Some condemned their children to monasticism at an early age, and sometimes even before birth. Many of those who remained in the world tried to live in it monastically, and the ultimate desire even for religiously indifferent people was to die tonsured or, at least, to be buried in the sacred fence of the monastery!” [1].

Holy Mount Athos

Since the middle of the 9th century, has been inhabited by hermits . From this time the remarkable ascetic Euthymius (since 857) is known. By decree of Emperor Basil the Great in 872, the entire Athos peninsula was given over to the monks, and laurels began to appear there. The first monastery was founded in 963. The first main founder and organizer of monastic life on Athos and legislator was Athanasius († 1000), who labored in the second half of the 10th century.

On Athos there were many Latin monks and laymen from Rome and Amalfia, attracted by the glory of Athos as a monastic paradise; they first labored in Greek monasteries, and then erected their own monasteries, like the Roman one, dedicated to Sts. the apostles Peter and Paul, and Amalfi, dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary.

At the end of the 10th century, in 980-997. The Vatopedi monastery was restored on Mount Athos . [2]

Monasticism in Russia was based on Byzantine traditions. Most of the monasteries were and are communal. The life of monasticism for newly baptized Rus' was truly different - stunningly mysterious, breaking all the usual ideas about life values. Monasticism existed “not in the world,” and therefore only it was seen as truly separated from the world, holy, and could reveal the inaccessible light of the Kingdom of Heaven. The very word “holiness” in Slavic languages ​​comes from the word “light”. Already in Byzantium, the monastic state was called the “angelic order,” thereby emphasizing the detachment of monasticism from earthly goods. In Rus', the proverb has taken root and deeply entered the soul of a believer: “Angels are light for monks, monks are light for the laity.” [3]

St. Prince Vladimir

The beginning of monasticism in Russia was laid by Prince Vladimir . Under him, Chernetsy and Chernitsy (those who took monasticism and donned black robes were called) settled near the built churches, forming small nameless monasteries. Under his son Yaroslav the Wise, they began to build separate “registered” monasteries. They were mainly erected by princes or boyars in honor of their heavenly patrons. Such monasteries were built for the remembrance of the soul and in order to take pre-death tonsure. At that time, every Orthodox Christian, be it a prince or a commoner, wanted, if not to live, then to die as a monk. However, as the chronicler notes, these monasteries were built “out of wealth” and not “through tears, prayer and fasting.”

St. Anthony and St. Theodosius of Pechersk.

The first who founded the monastery with their labors and exploits were the Monks Anthony and Theodosius of Pechersk. They are rightly considered the founders of Russian monasticism, despite the fact that before them, monasticism existed in Rus' for more than half a century.

The Monk Anthony was born in the Chernigov region and, having reached adulthood, went to Mount Athos. There, having taken monastic vows, he began to live as a hermit in a cave. After some time, Anthony receives the blessing to return to Rus' and establish monasticism there. Upon returning from Athos, Anthony visited all the existing Kyiv monasteries and did not find a “quiet refuge” in any of them. He saw the meaning of monastic feat in the desire to move away from society and its bustle. Outside the city limits, he found a small cave dug into the hilly bank of the Dnieper. This is where Anthony settled in 1051. This is how the Pechersk (that is, cave) monastery arose, which later became known as the Kiev Pechersk Lavra.

One of the first students of St. Anthony was Theodosius. Soon after Anthony's removal, he was elected abbot. Gradually, Theodosius moved the monastery from the caves to the mountain. The caves remained for Anthony and those who wished to retreat. Theodosius not only did not isolate the monastery from the world, but placed it in the closest connection with it, destining it for public service. [4]

1) From the book of Bishop Varnava (Belyaev) “Fundamentals of the Art of Holiness (an experience in presenting Orthodox asceticism).” – Volume 3. – Nizhny Novgorod: Publication of the brotherhood in the name of Holy Prince Alexander Nevsky, 1998 – 544 pp.; pp.145-153).

Faithful and Unfaithful

At the beginning of the journey to the monastery, you can choose a monastery: live in one, then in another, in the third just to pray. More precisely, until the moment when someone who came to the monastery took a vow and became a novice or novice. Typically this period lasts from one to three years. During this time, one can realize how ready a person is to spend his whole life in a monastery, or whether he still wants to start his own family and live a secular life.

“If they realized that this was not for them, then thank God, well done, hero.” We joke about such things: we will give money for a taxi, for a bouquet of flowers for the bride, for him to take her by taxi to the registry office and they submit an application. If he realized that his path is a worldly family life, that he, for example, cannot live without his wife, well, thank God that he understood himself and realized that his path is a worldly family life. Well done, a very honest and decent person: he does not lie to others and, most importantly, to himself. The same goes for the girl who did this. And while the period of trial and novitiate is going on, they have the right to make the appropriate decision,” said Theophylact.

As Hieromonk Photius, a resident of the Pafnutyevo-Borovsky Monastery, said in a conversation with VM, before deciding to stay in the monastery, “a person needs to think about it 300 times, because this is not the romance that is written about in books.”

- You will have to pass the test, go through all the stages before entering the brethren. First you become a laborer, then a candidate for the brethren, then a novice, you put on a cassock, but you are not yet a monk. During this period of preparation you need to have maximum patience, because you will be tested for humility. It will be useful throughout your life in the monastery, because one of the main virtues in the monastery is obedience,” said Photius.

Obedience is one of the main difficulties faced by newcomers to the monastery. This is especially true for people who come to the monastery already in adulthood, with an established character and habits. Photius also noted that discipline was stricter in a nunnery. Therefore, young girls who decide to spend their lives within the walls of the monastery especially need to think about their choice.

— As a rule, nunneries are more full. The discipline is much stricter than in men's. There are, of course, very strict monasteries, but still... You have to understand when young girls leave that they will have a hard time in the women’s group,” said the interlocutor of “VM”.

If a nun goes to confession, he said, she should also talk about her sister’s known sin. If he doesn’t tell, the sin will be on each of the sisters.

The priest told us when to pray to Alexander Nevsky

Smolich I.K. Russian monasticism

Smolich I.K. Russian monasticism

M.: Tserkovno-nauchny, 1997. - 607 p.
“Russian Monasticism” is a unique, comprehensive work on the history of Russian monasticism from its inception to the 19th century inclusive, written by the outstanding church historian I. Smolich. Smolich worked with materials on Russian church history for 15 years. In the process of his work, he realized that the subject of the history of Russian monasticism was almost untouched. This is how his book “Russian Monasticism” appeared. The history of Russian monasticism is shown by Smolich in close connection with the history of Russian statehood and the general history of the Russian Church. Smolich considers the victory of the Josephites over non-covetous people to be the key moment in the history of Russian monasticism, which in his opinion led to secularization, and subsequently to the complete degradation of Russian monasticism. It began to revive only in the 19th century. That is, Smolich sees the history of the Russian Church in a very non-stereotypical way: the late centuries of Ancient Rus' were a time of withering of Orthodoxy, and the Synodal period was a time of revival and flourishing. Chapter I. Origins 1. Brief outline of the history of Orthodox monasticism in the East 2. The emergence of the first monasteries in Kievan Rus o Chapter II. The first flowering of monasticism in Kievan Rus 1. Pechersk Monastery and teacher. Theodosius 2. Monasticism of the XII and XIII centuries 3. Religious and cultural activities of monasticism Chapter III. Saint Sergius of Radonezh and his school 1. Historical background for the flourishing of Christian asceticism in northeastern Rus' 2. The nature of asceticism in the 14th and 15th centuries 3. Professor. Sergius of Radonezh and his monastery 4. The ascetic “school” of Sergius and other ascetics of the 14th and 15th centuries Chapter IV. Joseph Volotsky and Nil Sorsky. Dispute between two ascetic movements 1. St. Abbot Joseph of Volotsky and his church-political views 2. Professor. Elder Nil of Sorsky and his ascetic views 3. The dispute between the “Josephites” and the “non-covetous” Chapter V The world of church-political ideas in Moscow in the 16th century. 1. Consolidation of Russian lands under the political power of the Moscow sovereigns and the Russian Church 2. Church-political ideas in Moscow in the second half of the 15th and early 16th centuries 3. Monk Philotheus and his messianic ideas 4. Metropolitan Macarius and Russian hagiography of the 16th century 5. Glorification Russian holy ascetics Chapter VI. The question of land ownership of monasteries in polemical writings and legislation of the 16th-17th centuries. 1. “Prince-Monk” Vassian and his polemical works 2. Other works directed against monastic land ownership 3. Works defending the right of monasteries to own estates 4. Government measures of the 16th century aimed at limiting monastic land ownership 5. Measures taken in the 17th century until 1648 6. Code of 1648 7. Order of the Grand Palace and Monastic Order Chapter VII. The main directions of monastic colonization in the 16th-17th centuries. 1. State-political conditions of colonization 2. Six main areas of monastic colonization 3. Monastic colonization in the Moscow center 4. Monastic colonization in the North 5. Monastic colonization in the West 6. Monastic colonization in the Ponizovye 7. Monastic colonization of Siberia 8. Monastic colonization in the South 9. General nature of colonization Chapter VIII. Monastic possessions and monastic economy in the 16th-17th centuries. 1. Legal documents that are sources on the history of monastic estates 2. Oprichnina and the agricultural crisis of the 16th century 3. Selected examples of monastic farming 4. The growth of monastic land holdings in the Ponizov region in the 16th and 17th centuries as an example of the colonization activities of monasteries 5. General picture of the monastic economy 6. State-legal basis of monastic land ownership 7. Monastic peasants 8. Monastic estates and the emergence of serfdom 9. “Monastic servants” and “monastic children” 10. Monastic trade 11. Management of monastic estates and duties of monasteries to the state 12. Jurisdiction of monastic estates Chapter IX. The structure of monastic life in the 16th-17th centuries. 1. From the history of the monastic Rules in Ancient Rus' from the beginning to the 16th century 2. Monastic rules of the 16th and 17th centuries 3. The internal structure of monastic life 4. The rite of tonsure and spiritual care of new monks 5. The liturgical monastic rules and the daily life of monks 6. The state of the monastic lives 7. Jurisdiction of monasteries for spiritual matters 8. Episcopate 9. Asceticism in the 16th and 17th centuries 10. Missionary works of monks 11. Social and charitable activities of monasteries Chapter X. Monasticism and church writing of the 16th-17th centuries. 1. Apologetic-polemic works. Hegumen Joseph of Volotsky 2. Elder Artemy. His ascetic-mystical and apologetic works 3. Zinovy ​​Otensky and his works 4. Metropolitan Daniel 5. Hagiographical and historical works 6. Works of the monk Ermolai-Erasmus 7. Literature of the 17th century Chapter XI. Western influences and theological dispute about the transfusion of the Holy Gifts 1. Penetration of Western influences in the 17th century 2. Monk Euthymius and Patriarch Joachim as representatives of Moscow conservatism 3. Simeon of Polotsk and Sylvester Medvedev as bearers of Western influences 4. Controversy about the time of the transfusion of the Holy Gifts Chapter XII . Schism and monasticism 1. Religious and psychological reasons for the schism 2. Correction of books before Patriarch Nikon 3. Patriarch Nikon 4. Correction of books under Patriarch Nikon 5. Opposition of monasticism against Nikon’s events 6. Riot in the Solovetsky Monastery Chapter XIII. The era of secularization (1701-1764) 1. Peter the Great and his attitude towards monasticism 2. Government measures in relation to monasteries, monastic estates and monasticism 3. Secularization 1764 Chapter XIV. Monasticism in the era from secularization in 1764 to the beginning of the 20th century. 1. The external history of monasticism 2. The internal structure of monastic life 3. The growth in the number of monastics in the 19th century 4. Women's monasteries in the 19th century 5. Episcopacy and “learned monasticism” Chapter XV Eldership and asceticism of the 18th-19th centuries. 1. The origins of eldership and its essence 2. Eldership in Ancient Rus' 3. Elder Paisiy Velichkovsky and his “school” 4. The activities of Metropolitan Gabriel Petrov, aimed at the revival of monasticism 5. Sarov hermitage and teaching. Seraphim 6. Optina Pustyn and its elders 7. Other centers of eldership 8. St. Tikhon of Zadonsk 9. Selected examples of asceticism Conclusion Notes File information:
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